RESEARCH & CLIMATE AND NATURAL REGIONS - NOTES
RESEARCH
Definition
Research is a scientific and systematic process of collecting, analyzing, and interpreting data based on a certain phenomenon.
OR
Research is a careful and systematic investigation in a field of knowledge or a systematic process of collecting information and interpreting it.
OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH
To search for new knowledge/insights.
To gain familiarity with a certain phenomenon.
To develop theory about certain social-economic phenomena.
To test hypotheses so as to find out their reliability.
To explain/describe certain phenomena.
To find solutions to existing problems.
To make an evaluation of a certain issue.
IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH IN DAILY LIFE
Research develops or generates new knowledge, e.g. the information produced by research can be applied in many ways.
It helps to improve human activities for the betterment of people, e.g. a society can develop an irrigation scheme when findings show that there is food shortage.
Research can be used to develop new theories and laws.
It helps to improve various sectors related to daily life, e.g. agriculture, industries, etc.
It provides reliable and needed information to data banks.
Research enables finding solutions to special programmes, e.g. HIV, hunger, etc.
TYPES OF RESEARCH
1. According to Their Aims/Purpose
i) Basic/Pure Research
It is a type of research which is conducted to collect data to advance or develop certain scientific knowledge.
It is always done through the verification of theories, especially in the laboratory.
ii) Applied Research
It is research which seeks the specific knowledge necessary to find solutions to certain problems in society.
iii) Evaluative Research
It is a type of research which is conducted purposely to measure or assess the achievement of a certain scientific practice.
iv) Analytical Research
It is a type of research that uses facts already available and analyzes these facts to make a critical evaluation of the material.
v) Fundamental Research
It is a type of research which studies life processes that are universal in their application to scientific knowledge.
2. According to the Type of Data to Be Collected
i) Quantitative Research
It focuses on the measurement of quantity.
It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity, like population data.
It tries to answer the questions: How much? How many?
ii) Qualitative Research
It is concerned with qualitative phenomena.
It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in qualitative terms.
The data gathered are purely in the form of descriptions.
It is alternatively called descriptive research.
OTHER TYPES OF RESEARCH
Empirical Research – relies on intensive interpretation of data and comes up with conclusions which are capable of being verified through observation/experiment.
Conceptual Research – is related to some abstract ideas. It is used to develop new concepts.
Exploratory Research – is conducted when a researcher explores things like gold, iron, diamond, and other metals related to mining.
Explanatory Research – is research that explains a certain phenomenon.
RESEARCH DATA
DATA
Data is a body of information about a particular problem.
TYPES/SOURCES OF DATA IN RESEARCH
i) Primary Source/Data
It is the original data collected directly from the field. They are obtained through interviews, questionnaires, observation, and focus group discussion.
ii) Secondary Sources/Data
It is data collected from documents.
Examples: through books, journals, economics, surveys, census reports, official reports.
STAGES OF CONDUCTING RESEARCH
i. Problem identification
ii. Pre-survey
iii. Literature review
iv. Formulation of hypothesis
v. Research design
vi. Data collection
vii. Data analysis
viii. Hypothesis testing
ix. Data interpretation
x. Report writing
i) PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION
A problem is the question or idea of interest which ought to be answered through data collection.
The researcher identifies a problem to be researched, e.g. child labour, poor performance.
QUALITIES OR CHARACTERISTICS OF A RESEARCH PROBLEM
The research problem must be carefully selected and come from the researcher’s mind.
It must be clear, precise, and meaningful.
It must relate to the subject of interest, e.g. a geographer can do research on the following issues: climate, soil, etc.
The research problem must be short and clear to avoid vagueness and ambiguity.
It must have variables.
SOURCES OF RESEARCH PROBLEM
Personal experience.
Conclusions from various theories.
Literature reviews.
Practical issues.
Deductive and inductive reasoning.
ii) LITERATURE REVIEW
These are readings of various publications to know what other scholars/researchers have done about what you are investigating.
It enables the researcher to gain experience, to decide on a good method to be used, and to identify the weaknesses and successes of other researchers.
Sources of literature reviews are journals/reports, books, and the internet.
iii) FORMULATION OF HYPOTHESIS
This is an assumption used on what one expects to find out in the field.
It can be either true or false. A hypothesis is a prediction of the outcome of the results. It is a statement of expected results.
Research hypotheses are usually tested before the study begins.
Example: Poor students' classroom attendance results in poor academic performance.
The hypotheses are:
Involvement of students in economic activities.
Poor family income.
Poor parental care.
TYPES OF RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS
1. Null Hypothesis
It is the one that is stated in negation, i.e. it indicates no relationship between the variables.
2. Alternative Hypothesis
It is the one stated to indicate the actual expectation. It indicates a relationship between the variables.
iv) RESEARCH DESIGN/STUDY DESIGN
This is the framework of the research.
It is the conceptual structure within which a research is conducted.
v) RECONNAISSANCE
It is the pilot study of the area before the actual data collection is done.
The stage enables the researcher to become familiar with the area and judge the tools to be used, etc.
vi) DATA COLLECTION
It involves the collection of various information in field research.
It can be done through observation, interview, questionnaires, and focus group discussion.
DATA COLLECTION TOOLS/METHODS
The following are the basic and common methods used to collect primary data in the field.
1. OBSERVATION
A researcher uses his/her five senses of hearing, tasting, smelling, seeing, and touching to observe the phenomena and record what is observed.
Types of Observation
i) Participant/Direct Observation
In this method, the researcher becomes part of the people under study. He/she participates fully in a particular event.
ii) Non-Participant Observation
In this method, the researcher observes the actions, behaviours, and activities of the researched group without participating or being seen by the participants.
ADVANTAGES OF OBSERVATION
Helps to develop skills like observation and recording.
Data are recorded as they occur/are observed.
It gives first-hand information.
Allows full participation of learners in the teaching and learning process.
It is a quick method of data collection.
No bias.
Avoids language barriers.
It is flexible to use wherever and whenever needed.
DISADVANTAGES OF OBSERVATION
It can give wrong information, especially when the respondent discovers that they are being researched.
Misinterpretation of data may occur.
Some geographical phenomena may not be easily obtained.
It costs time and money. Sometimes it may involve risk-taking, especially when you are observing people who are doing something illegal.
It is subjective because data is based on personal observation.
2. INTERVIEW
It is a face-to-face technique between a researcher and a respondent.
It is verbal communication/interaction between the interviewer and interviewee, designed to elicit information, opinions, and feelings they have on their own.
It can be done in two ways: face-to-face interview and telephone interview.
ADVANTAGES OF INTERVIEW
The interview enables a researcher to obtain required information quickly.
It is not restricted; it is flexible.
Interview can adapt to the situation and get as much information as required.
Provides data which is not possible to get through questionnaires.
Interview method can also employ observation method.
Interview gives/yields high responses because it is difficult for the interviewee to refuse completely to answer the questions or ignore the interviewer.
DISADVANTAGES OF INTERVIEW
It is time-consuming.
If the respondents are suspicious of the information required, they can give irrelevant information.
There is an element of distortion.
The respondent tends to be subjective.
It costs the researcher money to travel to meet respondents in different parts of the country.
It becomes a hindrance if the researcher wants to use big samples.
TYPES OF INTERVIEWS
1. STRUCTURED INTERVIEW
It is the type of interview in which the same questions are asked to respondents.
The researcher prepares questions which he/she asks each respondent in a good order and manner.
ADVANTAGES
A researcher can compare answers from different respondents to see their validity.
It is possible to use quantitative analysis to analyze the data.
It is not time-consuming.
DISADVANTAGES
It is inflexible; the researcher cannot ask anything apart from those prepared before.
Some hidden information cannot be obtained easily.
2. UNSTRUCTURED INTERVIEW
It is a set of questions that the interviewer asks when interviewing.
Probing is commonly used to get deeper information. The questions vary from one respondent to another.
ADVANTAGES
More information can be revealed because of a high degree of freedom.
Respondents are given chances to say more about what they are asked.
DISADVANTAGES
It is time-consuming because it involves probing questions.
The researcher cannot be able to compare answers given because different questions are asked to different respondents.
If it is not controlled/planned, it may collect irrelevant information.
PROCEDURE FOR CONDUCTING AN INTERVIEW
Create a friendly atmosphere where two people can talk easily.
Maintain warmth and friendliness. It enables respondents to express in detail their thoughts and feelings.
Be neutral in tone and don’t suggest any answer.
Instill confidence and trust in the respondent by assuring him/her that the information given will be confidential.
Explain briefly the purpose of the interview.
3. QUESTIONNAIRES
These are ready-written questions which are given to the respondent to be answered.
Consist of a list of questions related to the topics used to obtain the data required.
ADVANTAGES OF QUESTIONNAIRES
Researchers get a lot of information from different respondents and from different areas in the country.
Omission of names makes the respondent able to respond to the questions.
Freedom to the respondents.
It is well planned (structured).
It is useful for distant respondents.
DISADVANTAGES
It is time-consuming.
It is selective in nature as it is limited to illiterate people.
It may lead to unsure answers when questions need opinions or personal feelings.
Questions may be misunderstood; hence, the respondents answer the way they understand and provide wrong data.
May get lost in transit.
It is expensive to prepare.
TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRES
I. Structured/Closed-Ended Questionnaires
These are questions which are accompanied by a list of all possible alternatives from which the respondent selects the answer that is best.
The respondents are limited in answering the questions.
ADVANTAGES
They are easier to analyze.
They are easier to administer because each item is followed by an alternative answer.
DISADVANTAGES
They are more difficult to construct because categories must be well thought out.
Responses are limited; the respondent is required to answer the questions according to the researcher’s choice.
II. Unstructured/Open-Ended Questionnaires
These are questions whereby the respondents are free to explain the answers.
They permit respondents to respond in their own words. The amount of space provided is, however, an indicator of whether a brief or long answer is required.
ADVANTAGES
Allow a greater chance of responses.
Simple to formulate because a researcher does not have to come up with appropriate response categories.
Can stimulate a person to think about his/her feelings and to express what he/she considers most important.
DISADVANTAGES
When the respondent is free, he/she may give information which does not answer the concerned research questions.
It is time-consuming.
PROCEDURES CONSIDERED IN PREPARING QUESTIONNAIRES
Questions should be short and straightforward.
Questions should be asked and should follow the order.
Questions should be polite.
Questions should be free from bias.
MAIL QUESTIONNAIRES
This is the type of questionnaire which involves mailing questions to the respondent.
It can be through post mail.
4. FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION
It is a research method which involves intensive discussion on a particular issue.
Normally done in groups of 5–7 people.
A researcher guides the discussion and records the data from what is discussed by the members.
AIM: It enables the group to get additional information.
ADVANTAGES
Low cost.
Researcher becomes an active person in the discussion.
Respondents get skills in writing, speaking, and coordinating.
Makes respondents understand the topic well.
Allows critical thinking among the participants.
Makes the research topic lively and interesting.
DISADVANTAGES
Not easy to analyze the data collected.
Very small sample is used.
Selection of sample may be affected by biasness.
It is time-consuming.
vii) DATA ANALYSIS
The stage involves the following processes: editing, coding, classification, and tabulation of collected data.
viii) DATA INTERPRETATION
After getting the right information, the analyzed data is interpreted in different statistical graphs, charts, figures, etc., that can be understood by everyone.
ix) TESTING HYPOTHESIS
This involves sorting and sifting to identify similar phrases.
x) REPORT WRITING
It is the last step in research where a researcher communicates his or her findings to other researchers or the public.
IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH REPORT
i. Exposes the problem and its implications.
ii. Presents the outcome of research data.
iii. Interprets the data.
THE REPORT FORMAT
The research report should have three main parts:
a) Preliminary pages
b) Main body
c) Conclusion
A) PRELIMINARY PAGES
Serves as a guide to the reader.
Page 1: Title of the research.
Page 2: Declaration; that the work belongs to the said researcher.
Page 3: Acknowledgement. (A researcher’s gratitude to all who, in one way or another, helped the researcher to be successful).
Page 4: Table of contents.
Page 5: List of tables (if any).
Page 6: List of figures.
Page 7: Abstract – This summarizes the whole research work. It should not be more than 120 words.
B) THE MAIN BODY
It contains five chapters:
Chapter 1: Introduction
The chapter contains the following parts:
Background of the study.
Statement of the problem.
Objective of the study.
Purpose of the study.
Scope of the study.
Significance of the study.
Chapter 2: Literature Review
Covers the literature review of other researchers who did similar research in the past.
Chapter 3: Research Methodology
This describes the design of the research and methods of conducting the study, e.g.:
Population.
Sampling.
Location of the study area.
Tools and data analysis techniques.
Chapter 4: Data Presentation
This part covers the results of the findings of the research.
Chapter 5: Conclusion and Recommendations
Provides a detailed summary of the findings and the implications drawn from the results.
SAMPLE AND SAMPLING
SAMPLE: Is the small number of population which represents the whole population.
SAMPLING: Is the process of collecting samples from the population.
SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
1. RANDOM SAMPLING
It is a type of probability sampling whereby every individual has an equal chance to be selected in a sample.
This technique involves selecting a sample randomly from the sampling frame without replacement.
Example: It is very common in lotteries such as Bingo and communication companies.
Advantages
It reduces biasness.
It is a very important method in a small population.
The method portrays fairness in getting a sample.
It gives equal chance to every person to be selected.
Disadvantages
The better sample may not be chosen.
It is very tedious or tiresome.
It is time-consuming, especially when the population is high.
It is representative in heterogeneous populations.
Heterogeneous population – means a population with different characteristics.
2. SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING
It is a sampling technique whereby a sample is obtained randomly but in a systematic way.
It is a sampling technique which involves selection of a sample randomly at regular intervals from the sampling frame.
3. STRATIFIED SAMPLING
Individuals for the sample are selected from different strata.
Example: A researcher wishes to get a sample of 20 students from 5 schools. He/she will have to select 4 students from each.
4. PURPOSIVE SAMPLING
It is judgemental sampling in which a researcher uses his/her knowledge to choose individuals to be samples.
The sample is based on a certain purpose, e.g. only engineers, males, students, youth, elders, etc.
5. ACCIDENTAL SAMPLING
The researcher comes into contact accidentally with individuals to form a sample.
6. SNOWBALL SAMPLING
The researcher begins with the few individuals available, then those individuals recommend others.
THE USES OF RESEARCH OUTPUTS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Help to improve the knowledge of the people, e.g. discovery of diseases.
The results help in finding problems facing society, e.g. diseases, social inequalities, famine.
The results improve economic and social activities, e.g. introduction of new breeds of cattle.
Research can lead to exploitation of new resources like minerals and fossil fuels.
It helps to identify the specific needs of each community, e.g. Community A needs schools, Community B needs water, etc.
Research results are useful in protecting and conserving the environment.
They are used in formulating government policy.
CLIMATE AND NATURAL REGIONS
WORLD CLIMATIC TYPES AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS
The world climatic types, on the basis of temperature, are classified into four basic types:
i. HOT CLIMATES
Is the climatic type of the world characterized by mean annual temperature which is over 21ºC and have the following natural vegetation: Equatorial Forests, Monsoon Forest and Tropical Grassland scrub, e.g. Equatorial, Tropical Desert, Monsoon and Marine areas.
ii. WARM CLIMATES
Is the world’s climatic type whereby no month has the temperature of less than 7ºC and have the following natural vegetation: Evergreen Woodland and Grassland, Temperate Forest, e.g. West Margin and China Type.
iii. COOL CLIMATES
Is the world’s climatic type whereby one to five months have temperature below 7ºC and have the following natural vegetation: Temperate Forest, Grassland and Scrub, e.g. British Type, Cool Temperate Interior and Laurentian Type.
iv. COLD CLIMATES
Is the world’s climatic type whereby six months or more have temperature below 7ºC and the natural vegetation are Nil, Mosses, Lichen and Coniferous Forest, e.g. Polar, Tundra, West Margin, etc.
FACTORS INFLUENCING CLIMATE
The characteristics of various types of climate are a result of the following factors:
a) Latitude
Influences temperatures on the surface of the earth whereby the areas nearer to the Equator experience higher temperature than those far away.
Shifting of the overhead position of the sun is determined by latitudes and has an influence on climate.
b) Altitude
Influences temperature and pressure of a region.
Low altitude regions are warmer and experience high atmospheric pressure, while high altitude areas are cooler and have low pressure.
c) Distance from the Sea
Has an influence in both temperature and rainfall of a region. During summer, onshore winds have cooling effect on the land which is warm.
During winter, the sea is warmer than the land.
d) Aspect
Aspect refers to the direction in which a slope faces, e.g. in the Northern Hemisphere, the Southern ward slopes are warmer than the North ward facing slopes. This is because the North slopes never receive direct sunshine as the sun in this region never gets overhead.
Windward slopes of highlands receive much higher rainfall than the Leeward slopes.
e) Ocean Currents
Current flowing along the coasts tend to modify the climate of the coastal regions. Where onshore winds blow over a cold ocean current, they are cooled from the below and the moisture they are carrying is condensed and dropped over the sea as rain.
f) Prevailing Winds
Wind is a medium of transfer of heat and moisture over the land. If wind is blowing from a warm region, it has the warming effects over the region it is blowing across, and if wind will blow from cold region it will be cold and will cool the land over which it is blowing.
g) Human Activities
Like development of settlements, agriculture and construction of dams and creation of man-made lakes have influence on climate. In recent times, we are realizing the effects of human activities in causing climate change, caused by clearing of forests, draining and cultivating swamp areas, emission of Chlorofluorocarbons and other gases from factories and motor vehicles.
NATURAL REGIONS OF THE WORLD
Natural Regions are geographical areas with uniform physical characteristics that distinguish it from other natural regions.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THESE REGIONS
They experience similar problems.
They have same geographical background.
Are unified by the same certain latitudes which help in locating them over.
Tend to have almost the same type of soil and vegetation cover.
They have the same occupation such as mining, agriculture and animal husbandry.
TYPES/CLASSIFICATIONS OF NATURAL REGIONS
Equatorial Regions.
Tropical/Savannah Region.
Mediterranean.
Hot Desert.
Warm Temperate Interior Region.
Cold Temperate Continental Region (SIBERIAN TYPE).
Cool Temperate West Margin Region (BRITISH TYPE).
Cool Temperate Eastern Margin Region (LAURENTIAN TYPE).
Warm Temperate Eastern Coast Margin Region (CHINA TYPE).
Monsoon Region.
Mountain Region.
Tundra and Polar Region.
1. EQUATORIAL REGIONS
Location: The region is found between 0°–5° North and South of the Equator.
Area found: West coastal Nigeria S.W and S. Central Ghana, Congo, and Amazon Basin/East Indies.
Characteristics of Equatorial
High temperature about 27°C throughout the year.
Annual temperature range is 2°C.
Rainfall is heavy throughout the year.
The annual rainfall is about 2000mm.
There are no seasons of the year.
Type of rainfall is convectional.
Crops grown: Cassava, groundnuts, maize, millet, beans, bananas.
Human activities: Plantation agriculture, fishing, cultivation, peasantry sedentary agriculture.
Common animals found: Monkey, gorillas, crocodiles, and hippopotamus.
2. TROPICAL REGION / GRASSLAND / SAVANNAH / SUDAN TYPE
Location: The region is found between 5°–20° North and South of the Equator, between equatorial and tropical desert.
Area found: East and Central Africa, Brazilian Plateau, Venezuela, Africa and N. Australia.
Climate: Hot wet summer season, warm dry winter, rainfall is moderate. Torrential rainfall associated with thunderstorms in annual range of temperature increases with the distance from Equator.
Characteristics of Tropical Region
High temperature ranges from 20°C–32°C.
Temperature range is 8°C.
Total rain varies from 500mm to 1500mm.
Vegetation: Tall grasses which lie dormant in dry season, e.g. Miombo, palm, acacia, gum tree.
Human activities: Livestock keeping and cultivation.
Animals found: Lion, leopard, zebra, giraffe.
Crops grown: Cotton.
3. MEDITERRANEAN REGION
It is found between 30°–45° North and South of the Equator around Mediterranean Ocean only.
Areas Found
South Eastern Australia, central Chile, central California, North and South America.
Characteristics of Mediterranean Region
Mean temperature is about 20°C–25°C.
Annual temperature rainfall is about 500mm to 760mm.
Has two (2) types of climatic conditions (season) per annual.
They face problems like TSUNAMI.
Type of rainfall is cyclonic rainfall.
The climatic condition is dry in summer and cool wet in winter.
It is a coastal belt region.
Rain has 2 seasons, not throughout the year.
Animal found:
Elephant, rhino, zebra, lion, buffalo.
Human activities:
Tourism, agriculture, fishing and navigation.
Crops are wheat, potatoes, vegetables, maize and fruit cultivation, as orange, lemon and grape fruits.
4. HOT DESERT
It is located between 15°–30° latitudes North and South of the Equator. Hot Deserts of the world are Sahara, Kalahari, Atacama and Namib Desert.
Characteristics of Hot Desert
Very high temperature of about 40°C during day time.
There is very little rainfall, usually less than 250mm a year.
Vegetation:
There is no complete cover of vegetation on the land because it is too scanty.
It consists mostly of thorny club bushes and cacti tropics.
Crops grown: Dates, palm, cotton, rice, tobacco, fruit tree and tomato.
Economic activities: Trading, mining, low agriculture over irrigation around coastal areas.
5. WARM TEMPERATE INTERIOR REGION (STEPPE TYPE)
Location: It is located 20°–35° North and South of the Equator.
Areas Found
Australia, Argentina, Mexico, USA (Oklahoma, Texas, place of Manchuria).
Characteristics of Steppe Type Region
Short warm summer and long cold winter.
Two seasonal in the year.
Rainfall is very little because of the dry winds (winds without moisture).
Type of rainfall is conventional rainfall caused by low pressure system.
Total annual rain 380mm–700mm, depending on distance from the sea.
Temperature range from 15ºC–25ºC depending on place location.
Maximum temperature during daytime exceed 30ºC.
When temperature falls less than 0ºC the land is covered with ice (snow).
The area experience low rainfall in general which form in spring and early summer.
Human Activities
Animal rearing (cattle and sheep ranching) to large grassland.
Agriculture, main crop cultivated is wheat, maize, linseed.
Mining in grassland (coal, oil, and iron ores).
Environmental Problems
Environmental pollution (air) due to industries.
Deforestation.
Snow fall destroy crops.
Floods, soil erosion.
Dust storm, thunderstorms.
Drought condition.
Leaching.
6. COLD TEMPERATE CONTINENTAL REGION (SIBERIAN TYPE)
Location
Northern Hemisphere along 60ºN in Europe, Asia and Northern America.
Characteristics of Siberian Type
Short warm summer season, long cold winter season. Warmest month reached about 30ºC.
Annual temperature range is 37ºC, very high due to distance from the sea.
Minimum temperature during night may be less than 40ºC.
Most rain falls in summer associated with thunderstorms.
Type of rain is convectional rainfall.
Average rainfall is 500mm.
Vegetation
Coniferous forest (but fewer than in equatorial climate).
Trees are evergreen; leaves are needle shaped, thick and leathery in order to reduce loss of moisture by transpiration.
Conical shaped trees do not permit the accumulation of snow.
Human Activities
Agriculture.
Lumbering.
Fishing.
Mining and trapping.
Soil
Coarse, infertile soil which do not favor agriculture. Agriculture is rarely practiced due to short time of grow season.
Animals Found
Animal have short ears and tails, fur so as to adapt to seasonal changes (e.g. moose, caribou fox).
Environmental Problems
Flooding.
Leaching.
Glacial erosion.
Soil infertility.
Frost destroys crops.
Environmental pollution.
7. COOL TEMPERATE WEST COAST MARGIN REGION (BRITISH TYPE)
Location
It is located in Western sides of continents between 45º–60ºN and S of the Equator.
Areas Found
Northern Western Canada, Coast of South Chile and Southern Island of New Zealand.
Characteristics of British Type
Type of rainfall is cyclonic and orographic which is distributed throughout the year.
Total annual rain is 760mm but varies with distance from sea.
Windward slopes receive heavier rain than leeward slope.
Coastal regions are in oceanic influence (near the ocean).
Vegetation: Deciduous trees are dominant (but are cleared to allow farming).
Human Activities
Main activity is mining and manufacturing industries.
Few people practice agriculture in Northern Europe.
Cattle, sheep, growing wheat and fruit develop in farming.
Availability of coniferous trees/forests encourages lumbering activities.
Environmental Problems
Deforestation due to lumbering, overgrazing.
Establishment of settlement and cultivation.
Water, air, soil pollution (also water borne diseases due to water pollution).
Floods due to poor drainage, soil erosion.
Earthquake and volcanic eruption that affect coast lands destruction of properties.
Soil leaching, soil acidification and decline of soil fertility.
8. COOL TEMPERATURE EASTERN MARGIN REGION (LAURENTIAN TYPE)
Location
It is located on eastern side between 35° and 50° Northern and Southern Hemisphere.
Areas Found
East Canada, North China, Korea, North Japan, England, USA.
Characteristics of Laurentian Type
Two (2) seasons per year: warm in summer and cold in winter. Rain throughout the year.
Summer temperature ranges from 12°C–18°C.
Annual range is high in summer about 25°C, it differs in America 25°C and in Asia 29°C.
In winter low temperature range 10°C–4°C, in America and 15°C–4°C in Asia.
Cold winds carry moisture, they blow outward from interiors which are responsible for low winter temperature.
Winds in North America are warmed by Great Lakes which results in heavy snow falls in Eastern Canada (Great Lakes influence the climate).
Precipitation is in the form of snow falls and rain in Southern America and Northern Japan.
Total rain is 550mm to 1000mm annually.
Rain is convectional and cyclonic.
Vegetation
Coniferous forest found in areas with high rainfall.
Northern Hemisphere there are deciduous trees.
Human Activities
Farming (USA – mixed farming, Canada – fruit trees).
Manufacturing industries.
Mining activity in America and Asia (minerals extraction).
In Asia crops as wheat, maize and soya beans grown intensively.
Environmental Problems
Snow fall destroys crops.
Bitter cold winter cause frost formation.
Environmental pollution.
Glacial erosion.
Stormy condition.
Dense fogs which hinder effective visibility.
Volcanic eruptions and earthquakes, e.g. in Japan Tsunamis.
Decline in fertility, deforestation.
Soil acidification.
Loss of biodiversity.
Frost.
9. WARM TEMPERATE EASTERN COAST MARGIN (CHINA TYPE)
Location
It is located in the Eastern side of the continents between 23°–35° North and South of the Equator.
Area Found
South Eastern USA, East central China and Eastern part of Argentina, S.E Australia and S.E Africa.
Characteristics of China Type
2 seasons, summer and winter.
Hot summers with temperature about 26°C and 13°C during winter.
Trade winds are dominant seasonal winds. They blow on short and bring convectional type of rainfall.
Most rain takes place in summer. In winter rain is light.
Annual total rain is 1000mm.
Soil
There are variety of soil types depending on location and topography.
Along the coast the soil is sandy, loam, silt and clay.
Beneath deciduous forest soil are called alfisols, rich in plant nutrients due to humus created by fallen leaves of deciduous tree.
Also there is peddlers and volcanic soil.
Geological System
Volcanic eruption and earthquakes which bring valuable minerals near the surface.
Human Activities
Mining.
Recreational centers (camp, climb, ski).
Pastoralism.
Manufacturing of HEP.
Tourism.
Employment to people in HEP power plants.
Transhumance – seasonal movement of animals to the valleys and to the uplands. People take animals to the upland pastures which are free from snow in summer and brought back to the valleys during winter.
Environmental Problems
Drought condition in the leeward side due to rain shadow effect.
Soil erosion.
Landslides.
Avalanches in snow cover.
Deforestation (because of lumbering and settlement).
Water population.
Flooding in lowlands.
Earthquakes and volcanic eruption.
Global warming that leads to melting of attractive snow.
10. THE MONSOON REGION
Is the area in which its climate is influenced by wind that blow from one direction in one season and another direction in another season.
It prevails mainly in Indian Ocean.
Areas Found
India, Burma, China, Indonesia, N. Australia, Southern Horn of Africa.
Characteristics of Monsoon Region
Climate
Receives rainfall in different amounts from place to place.
Wind blows from South-West in April–October.
Vegetation
Deciduous trees/forest in low lands and coniferous forests in highlands.
Flowering shrubs and bamboos are common.
Good temperature and rain makes it possible for growing crops throughout the year.
Human Activities
Fishing.
Trade.
Lumbering.
Tourism.
Industries.
Dairy farming.
Agriculture (maize, tobacco, and cotton, in S.E USA and paddy in China).
11. THE MOUNTAIN REGION
Location: Found mostly in areas where young fold mountain is obtained such as Himalaya, Alps, Rockies and Andes.
Areas Found
S. Europe, Central Asia, N. E Africa, E Australia and N & S of America.
Characteristics of the Mountain Region
Climate
Temperature of air drop as altitude increase.
When the warm moist air moves up the windward slope of mountain it cools and water vapour condenses into water droplets, which then fall as rain or snow on the windward side. The dry area (leeward side) which is away from wind is called rain shadow.
Precipitation increase when altitude increase, it is called relief or orographic precipitation.
Types of rainfall is orographic or relief rainfall.
Animals Found
Only few living things survive in the bitter cold of snow. Just below snowfield a variety of small animals are found.
Human Life
It has unfavorable for human settlement. The inhabitants are ESKIMOS of N. America, Yakutsk, Lapps of Scandinavia and Samoyed of Siberia.
Economic Activities
Hunting.
Fishing.
Rearing of vender.
Environmental Problems
Severally cold condition.
Snow fall and snow cover.
Frozen soil that hinder cultivation.
Environmental pollution.
Avalanches in mountainous region.
Shallow soil.
Sub glacial desert.
Glacial erosion.
Frost.
NB: Eskimos use clothes made of fur and polar deerskin.
In winter they live in house made up of ice blocks known as IGLOOS.
In summer they live in tents made up of wood and deerskin.
They use canoes called KAYAKS for transport.
12. TUNDRA AND POLAR REGIONS
(A) TUNDRA REGION
Location: Lies beyond latitude 60° N & S.
Areas found: N. Siberia, Russia and N. Canada.
Characteristics of Tundra Region
Climate
Short cool summer and long cold winter.
The annual range temperature varies from 29°C to 50°C.
Nights are long and day are short.
Snow covers the land for 9 months during the year.
Vegetation
Mosses, lichens, sedges and grasses.
Arctic scrub vegetation on southern parts.
Tundra stands for region with low vegetation cover.
(B) POLAR REGION
Location: Large parts of Greenland, Antarctica and interior of Iceland. It lies far away from Equator.
Characteristics of Polar Region
Temperature below 0°C due to effect of cold polar continental mass.
Also known as ice cap climate.
Receives sun rays at low angle.
Low temperatures.
Winters are extremely very long and cold.
The region experiences continuous darkness since it is inclined far from the sun.
Summers are quite cool and highest temperature hardly exceed 10°C.
Summer monsoon is accompanied by heavy rain.
Climate is characterized by heavy daily rainfall.
Vegetation
It varies with amount of rainfall.
Areas with heavy rain more than 2000m, consist of dense forest with big trees (teak and tropical cedar).
Area with 1000mm–2000mm rain, less dense forest, sandal wood and iron wood trees.
Human Activities
Farming (rice, millet, wheat, maize).
Tourism.
Environmental Problems
Land degradation.
Deforestation.
Heavy annual flood.
Destructive heavy rains.
Earthquakes due to tectonic plate movement.
Drought condition in some areas.
Leaching of soil.
