Interactions Among the People of Africa: Ngoni Migration, Causes, Success and Effects

COMPETENCE ONE – INTERACTIONS AMONG THE PEOPLE OF AFRICA

The word Interaction refers to the process by which people come in contact with one another and influence each other.

Interaction in Pre-Colonial Africa

Interaction was a state in which people from one community got into contact with another community and affect each other.

For example, in West Africa, between 8th – 16th C. AD, communities from the Sudanic belt engaged in trade with the communities from North Africa in the Trans-Sahara trade. This led to the introduction of Islamic religion, growth of states to the people of the Sudanic belt, intermarriage, and development of new technology.

In East Africa, the Swahili coastal city states such as Kilwa, Mombasa, and Zanzibar flourished due to trade with Arabs, Persian, and Indian merchants, which led to the development of unique Afro-Arab culture and language.

Interactions

Interactions were major links and contacts which were established by the Africans since the late Stone Age and Iron Age up to the middle of the 19th century when Africa was not yet colonized by the Europeans.

FACTORS FOR EARLY INTERACTIONS IN PRE-COLONIAL AFRICA

A. Social Factors

i. Migration

East Africa belongs to four main language groups namely the Khoisan, the Cushites, the Nilotes and the Bantu.

These early large groups interacted with the larger Cushites, Bantu and the Nilotes communities that began settling in East Africa from the first century A.D.

Through interaction of one community practiced medicine interacted with another led to some changes such as introduction of iron imagein East Africa.

ii. Religion

Religion played a crucial role in all African societies. Religious beliefs were taken seriously and affected every phase of life.

There was a variety of religious activities in pre-colonial Africa. These included burial rites, purifications, rituals, naming ceremonies and prayers to bless soldiers before they went to war.

Religious activities took place at different levels such as family level, clan level and community level.

For example, the Bushmen of Congo held prayers before going to hunt as they believed that God was the source of all food.

Among the Asante people of West Africa, the king of Asante (Asantehene) based his right to office on the possession of the Royal or Golden stool. Asantehene was regarded as the chief priest.

Natural cults also existed in many parts of Africa. Their main aim was to please the spirits and legendary heroes.

For example, the juju practiced in Western Africa. The Shona held a cult called Mwari.

iii. Wars

African communities engaged in war from time to time; they fought with various reasons such as to increase the number of the herds of livestock, to get fertile land for agriculture purposes and expansion of the kingdom.

For example, Buganda conquered Buddu, Karagwe and Busoga to expand their kingdom by 1839.

Egyptian army had established their base at Gondokora, the area located around Southern Khartoum and by 1869, Egyptian had raided and destroyed the Lango and Ancholi region in the modern day Uganda.

iv. Music and Dances

African music and dances brought people together; communities' rites and ceremonies were accompanied by songs and dances.

Every African society developed songs for work. Laborers sang while clearing fields, sowing and harvesting goods.

Examples of dances were Mdundiko among the Zaramo and Sindimba of Makonde.

The Yomba of West Africa performed Orik music whereby other songs praised or condemned certain characteristics including leadership and relation with neighbors.

Dances were also performed for different purposes; some dances were open to everyone while others restricted to a certain secret society, professional and artisans.

Example Chagga men and women performed a dance called Rring during wedding ceremonies and Luguru led their dance called Gubi.

v. Medicine

African's had medicine men and women who played important role both spiritually and medically.

Those who practice medicine interacted with many members of the society as patient visited some of the well-known medicine men and women.

Some medicine men and women were also political advisors and leaders. Example Kinjekitile Ngwale of Southern Tanganyika.

Most of the medicine were extracted from plant roots, barks and leaves.

For example, the neem tree (Mwarobaini) was mostly used by various medicine in Matebele.

vi. Marriage

Marriage occupies a position of great importance in African communities.

Every member of the society jugs to build their own family.

In Buganda the Kabaka married from different clans in order to enhance political unity in the kingdom. Therefore social interactions strengthened through marriage.

At the same time marriage led to emergence of new culture, examples Swahili culture as the result of mixture of Bantu and Arab culture.

B. Economic Factors

African communities also interacted due to economic factors such as:

i. Metal Working

African communities used various kinds of metal to make tools, weapons, utensil and ornaments.

Some of the widely used metals were iron, Bronze, Gold, Copper and tin.

Archaeologists have discovered the remains of early iron working beneath important religious shrine in the Great Lakes region dating back over 2,000 years ago.

Egyptians were the first people known to have used copper.

Benin the Bronze casters had guild called Igun Eronwon.

Through making various metal tools people interacted due to the need of the commodities through interactions.

ii. Agriculture

Many Africans communities practiced agriculture and different types of interaction took place in the process.

Apart from few communities such as the pastoral Maasai who never tilled land; other communities cultivated a variety of crops by using different farming methods.

Tools and crops were passed from one community to another.

The Kwavi who were purely pastoral community eventually became cultivators as the results of their interaction with agricultural societies.

iii. Fishing

Fishing was an economic activity that was practiced by communities that lived near water bodies such as lakes, rivers and the seas.

The Luo were and still are named fishermen in Pre-colonial East Africa.

The Ndengereko's fished in the river Rufiji while the Zaramo and other coastal people in the Indian Ocean.

Such fishing communities interacted with pastoralists and agriculturalists so as to acquire animal product and agricultural commodities.

iv. Trade

Trade conducted in pre-colonial period was in barter system.

The trade network was based on the need to access what a community didn't produce.

Example pastoralists exchanged their animals' products for vegetable and grains.

The Limbo clans among the Luo specialized in occupation such as iron working and pottery.

Between 8th – 16th C. AD communities from the Sudanic belt engaged in trade with the communities from North Africa in the Trans-Sahara trade.

Among the most important commodities of exchange were iron, gold, slaves and salts.

v. The Need to Search New Areas

Areas with fertile land and reliable rainfall were very attractive to the people within the regions or those coming from outside the regions.

Agricultural societies kept on shifting from the area with infertile soil to areas with fertile soil.

Examples in the Interacustrine regions were densely populated compared to areas like Central Tanzania and Northern part of Kenya where population was low.

INTERACTION IN THE INDIAN OCEAN ISLANDS

Before colonialism, the Indian Ocean islands such as Zanzibar, Madagascar, the Comoros and the Seychelles were integral to a large trade and cultural exchange network that linked together Africa, the Middle East, South Asia and the South East Asia.

Phases of the Interaction on the Indian Ocean Islands

The history of this early interaction between the people from Indian Ocean islands and those from middle and far east can be divided into two phases.

The First Phase – Ancient Period

The first phase was the Ancient Period between the 1st century BCE and the 7th century CE.

This phase involved early contacts among the Austronesian sailors, Chinese, Arabs and Indian traders.

The Second Phase – Medieval Period

The second phase was the Medieval Period between the 8th and 15th centuries CE.

This period was characterized by the expansion of Islamic influence and the rise of Swahili city-states as trading centers.

The Third Phase – Early Modern Period

The third phase was the early modern period between the 15th century and early 19th century CE with increased trade under local sultanates and early European explorations, starting with the Portuguese, Arabs, the French, and English.

Each phase saw evolving interaction patterns shaped by economic demands, technological advancements and shifting political dynamics.

FACTORS WHICH INFLUENCE THE INTERACTIONS ON THE INDIAN OCEAN

Several conditions facilitated the interactions on the Indian Ocean islands, including:

1. The Geographical Position and Maritime Trade

For instance, the strategic location of the islands such as Zanzibar and Madagascar made them serve as crucial stopping points for the traders travelling between the East African coast, the Middle East, India and Southeast Asia.

2. Presence of Monsoon Winds

The seasonal monsoon winds played an important role in determining trade routes, thus enabling the making of consistent and predictable voyages.

3. Religious Factor

Cultural and religious connections influenced the pre-colonial interactions on the Indian Ocean islands.

The spread of Islam and indigenous beliefs and practices created a unique culture across the islands.

Arab traders from Oman and Yemen played a central role in spreading Islam, which became famous in Zanzibar and the Comoros by the 12th century.

4. The Rise of Political Alliances and Conflicts

This led to the emergence of interactions on the Indian Ocean islands.

For example, local rulers formed alliance with foreign merchants to strengthen their economies and political power.

5. Settlement

By the 9th century, Arab traders had established permanent settlements in Zanzibar and the Comoros.

They intermarried with the local Bantu-speaking people, thus giving rise to Swahili culture, which combines African, Arab and Persian influences.

The construction of stone mosques and Swahili writing are key indicators of this cultural combination.

6. Trade

Trade was the main factor in the pre-colonial interactions.

The Indian Ocean islands were rich in resources.

For example, Madagascar supplied timber, iron and slaves to Arab and Indian traders.

Likewise, Zanzibar and the Comoros were known for cloves, ivory and spices.

COMMODITIES EXCHANGED DURING THE COMMERCIAL INTERACTION

INTERACTIONS IN SOUTHERN AFRICA

Before colonization, Southern Africa was a region of dynamic socio-economic and political interactions.

These interactions shaped the development of various communities and fostered trade, migration, warfare and cultural exchanges.

A good example of pre-colonial interaction in Southern Africa is the Ngoni migration, which involved Nguni speakers moving from Southern Africa to Central and East Africa in the 19th century.

FACTORS FOR EARLY INTERACTION IN SOUTHERN AFRICA

1. Migration

During the early period (1000-1500 CE), migration influenced interactions in Southern Africa.

The Bantu migrations into Southern Africa shaped the region's population, economic activities and culture.

For instance, the Bantu introduced ironworking, agriculture and new political structures, thereby facilitating their interaction with the indigenous San and Khoikhoi groups.

2. Trade

It was another significant factor in the early interactions in Southern Africa.

The Indian Ocean trade network brought goods such as beads, cloth and ceramics into the interior of Southern Africa.

The Swahili city-states on the East African coast, such as Kilwa and Sofala, facilitated these trade links.

The Great Zimbabwe state (circa 1100-1450 CE) became a major centre of gold trade, linking Southern Africa with the broader Indian Ocean world.

Gold, ivory and cattle were exchanged for luxurious items, thus integrating Southern Africa into the global trade networks.

3. The Mfecane

The Mfecane (1815-1840), a series of forced migrations and conflicts, had roots in the competition for land and resources that began in the 18th century and exemplifies the Southern African interactions.

A BRIEF HISTORY OF MFECANE

The word Mfecane is derived from the Nguni language which means; crushing or grinding or the war of wondering.

The Sotho called it "Defecane" to mean the same period.

It was also called "Lifecane" by other peoples of South Africa.

It was the period of upheavals and population migration which occurred in Zulu land in South Africa in the 19th century 1800-1830s.

It took place among the eastern Bantu tribe such as the Ngwane under Sobhuza, Mthethwa under Dingiswayo, Ndwandwe under Zwide, Minor group of the Zulu clan under Senzangakona.

The rise of Mfecane among such groups happened when the groups started to conquer each other.

CAUSES OF THE MFECANE

i. Increase of Population

This was the main internal factor that led to Mfecane.

In Nguniland population rapidly expanded that it outmatched the available resources.

As land became inadequate for farming and pasture, the demand for land raised conflicts that forced Nguni tribes adopt regular armies to fight for more land, thus Mfecane.

ii. The Struggle to Control Trade with the Delagoa Bay

From the late 18th C, European maritime traders at the Delagoa Bay were trading with African societies like the Mthethwa, Ndwandwe and Zulu.

The struggles to control the trade and acquire items like slaves, ivory and gold needed by maritime traders led to conflicts among the chiefdoms.

iii. The Boers Expansion Northwards

The Boer Trek in the interior intensified the severity of Mfecane.

With their determination to control any fertile land in the interior, the Boers fought African tribes included the Zulu, Nguni, Xhosa and Kumalo.

The wars caused a lot suffering as tribes started fighting each other for the little land left.

iv. Rise of Zulu – Tshaka

Tshaka contributed to the development of Mfecane.

He was a powerful leader with strong army, which used short stabbing spears to fight the other clans by defeating and absorbing them into his chiefdom.

v. Territorial Expansion

Territorial expansion made various clans wage the wars among themselves.

Each clan desired to expand boundaries in order to make a larger territory.

vi. The Great Pride in Military Skills of Nguni Tribal Leaders

The Nguni tribal leaders like Zwide of the Ndwandwe and Shaka of the Zulu fought each other to control the region by forcefully incorporating their neighbours into their hegemony.

vii. Deadly Cattle Raiding Acts

The Nguni adopted lethal cattle raiding activities against each other to expand their herds.

As herds expanded communities competed for more grazing lands.

The two; cattle raiding and need for more pastureland resulted in endless conflicts which ultimately led to Mfecane.

viii. Transformation from Communal to Feudal System

Emergence of classes gave way to the rise of strong landlords - tribal leaders who were itching to consolidate power by acquiring more land.

This settled the Nguni into small but rival chiefdoms such as Ngwane, Mthethwa, Zulu and Ndwandwe which contested for control of land in the region.

ix. Attacks by the Griquas

Since the early 19th C, coloured people from the Cape colony, known as Griquas, were a source of instability among the southern Bantu communities.

Using horses and firearms, the Griquas from time to time attacked the Nguni societies like the Sotho and capture women and children whom they sold as slaves to the Boers and British farmers.

EFFECTS OF THE MFECANE

Mfecane was indeed one of the notable 19th C African revolutions that have far reaching effects that touched a vast region of South, Central and East Africa.

However much it brought havoc, it also brought considerable military, political and social development.

The effects include:

i. Massive Depopulation

Large parts of southern Africa namely, the regions of Natal, Orange Free and Transvaal states were largely depopulated.

Some societies were annihilated as thousands were massacred and more forced to flee from the constant tribal wars.

ii. The Spread of Zulu Military Techniques

The spread of Zulu military techniques to the same areas.

For example, many societies in East and Central Africa adopted the Ngoni's weapons such as short stabbing spears and long shields.

They also adopted fighting techniques such as the use of cow-horn formation when confronting enemies.

iii. Growth and Consolidation of Large States

It led to the growth and consolidation of large states in Central and East Africa.

As the Ngoni moved northwards, they destroyed states such as Rozwi in Zimbabwe, Lozi in Zambia, and Undi in Malawi.

The Ngoni set up multi-ethnic states of different sizes.

They included the Ndebele State in Zimbabwe, the Shangani State in present-day Mozambique and various Ngoni states in present-day Zambia, Malawi and Tanzania.

iv. Depopulation in Natal

The number of people decreased in larger areas such as the Veld.

They died during the wars while others flew from the region and concentrated themselves in other regions, which could be defended from frequent attacks by Shaka soldiers.

v. Separation of Bantu Tribes

Mfecane forced migrations of several Nguni tribes from southern Africa.

The migrating tribes like the Ngoni and Ndebele also invaded societies they came across forcing them out.

This chain of reaction led to continuous trouble and migrations that redistributed Bantu tribes in South, Central and East Africa.

vi. Emergence of Powerful Military Leaders

The severity of tribal wars led to the rise of strong military leaders who emerged to defend their tribes.

The leaders included Shaka of the Zulu, Mzilikazi of the Ndebele and Moshoeshoe of the Basulo.

vii. The Fall of Peace in Many Societies

Neighbouring South Africa existed due to Mfecane.

Many groups which moved away from Natal conquered local people on their way and disturbed peace.

Zwangendaba fought the Shona of Mwenemutapa in the movement to the North and disorganized the people in Eastern Africa especially in the West and South of Tanganyika.

viii. Mfecane Helped the Boers to Settle

Mfecane helped the Boers to settle in large areas of Natal and the Veld because many people had left the areas when the Boer Trek started in the 1830s.

The Boer settlers were able to take over land which was left unoccupied as a result of Mfecane in Natal.

ix. Military Transformation

The intensification of tribal wars forced the Bantu tribes to have a military outlook that they never had before.

Certainly, southern Africa became a home of military innovation.

For instance Shaka the notable military innovator introduced new weapons, the Assegai (short stabbing spear) and new tactics like the age-regiment system and cow-horn military strategy.

Such inventions were previously unknown in local warfare.

x. Death of Shaka Zulu

Shaka was murdered by his own brothers Dingane and Mhlangane on 14th December 1828 with the help of Mbhopa; Shaka's Induna.

Shaka was killed because of his brutality especially after the death of his mother Nandi.

xi. Ngoni Migration

Mfecane resulted into the migration of Nguni-speaking people to Central and East Africa.

These people were called the Ngoni in Tanzania, Zambia and Malawi; the Matebele in Zimbabwe; and the Kololo in South-eastern Zambia.

NGONI MIGRATION

The Ngoni were Bantu-Nguni speaking people of Northern Zululand in South East Africa.

They were originally Ndwandwe people under Zwide's leadership.

Ngoni migration was the movement of the Ngoni people from Natal in South Africa to Central and East Africa.

Their migrations started in the 1820s as a result of the Mfecane wars.

THE ARRIVAL OF THE NGONI IN TANZANIA (TANGANYIKA)

The Nguni-speaking people moved out of the Natal region in South Africa in different groups and went to different areas under different leaders.

For example, Shoshangane led his group north-eastwards to Mozambique.

Moshoeshoe and his people went to the present-day Botswana.

Sebituane and his group moved into the present-day Zambia and Mzilikazi and his people settled in Zimbabwe.

The Ngoni who came to Tanzania were in two groups.

The first group was under the leadership of Zwangendaba and the second one under the leadership of Mputa Mseko.

A. THE NGONI UNDER ZWANGENDABA

Zwangendaba led the first group of Jere-Nguni speakers.

He left the Natal region in the 1820s, after he had gathered some followers.

Zwangendaba and his people crossed the River Zambezi in 1835.

This group arrived and settled for some time in Ufipa in about 1840.

Zwangendaba died in 1845.

After his death, his followers split into five subgroups.

The groups were the Tuta, Gwangwara, Mpenzane, Mombera and Ciwere.

Two of these groups, the Gwangwara and Tuta, remained in Tanzania and the rest moved into and settled in Malawi and Zambia.

The Tuta Group

From Ufipa, the Tuta under Mpangalala moved northwards to the area called Shinyanga region at present.

Along the way they raided and defeated the Holoholo people, who shortly reorganised themselves and defeated the Tuta.

From this time onwards, the Tuta fought many other wars in north-western Tanzania and eventually settled in the Runzewe area of present-day Kahama District in Tanzania.

The Gwangwara Group

The Gwangwara group, led first by Zulu Gama and later by Mbonani, moved southeastwards from Ufipa to Songea district.

Before settling permanently in Songea, the Gwangwara clashed with the Hehe.

The clashes gave the Hehe a chance to reorganize into a more centralized society under Chief Munyigumba in the late 1860s and early 1870s.

B. THE NGONI UNDER MPUTA MASEKO / THE MASEKO NGONI

The second group of the Ngoni was led by Mputa Maseko; they were known as the Maseko Nguni-speaking people.

They came from the Natal region via Malawi and settled in Songea in the 1840s.

They were later invaded by the Gwangwara, who arrived there in the 1860s.

The two groups fought a war.

Maseko and his men were defeated and went to settle in northern Malawi.

Some of his followers moved to the north of Songea and settled permanently in Ulanga-Kilombero.

They came to be known as the Mbunga.

REASONS FOR THE SUCCESS OF THE NGONI PEOPLE

In their migration the Ngoni achieved to defeat the natives especially those in East Africa due to the following reasons

i. The Ngoni had strong military. They had well-organised armies which had superior techniques and weapons compared to those of their enemies.

For example, in the fights they used the cow-horn formation technique in which the Ngoni warriors could get close to their enemies, encircle them, and kill them in large numbers using short stabbing spears (assegai), and long shields.

The cow-horn formation technique

i. The incorporation of war captives into their own groups.

As the Ngoni fought wars with the people they met en route, they incorporated the war captives into their own groups.

Those who resisted were killed. The male captives were included in the military, while the women were turned into wives.

The incorporation of the war captives into the Ngoni groups increased the size of their population and strengthened the military.

ii. Strong and efficient leadership.

The leaders united their people and organised the military effectively.

They also motivated their warriors by promising that they would give them rewards such as land, cattle and women.

This, in turn, made the Ngoni warriors remain loyal to their leaders and fight bravely.

iii. The disunity and weaknesses of communities they encountered.

In their movement to the north, the Ngoni met people who lacked unity and had weak military capabilities.

In some areas people were organised into clans and were living in small villages.

Such people could not fight effectively the Ngoni intruders who were in large numbers, well organised and relatively better trained than them.

v. The use of the scorched-earth technique in the fights gave the Ngoni a relative advantage over communities they attacked.

The Ngoni marched in small groups and behaved ruthlessly when attacking their enemies.

They plundered the areas and the people they conquered.

Through this method, they took everything valuable from the defeated people, burnt their houses and destroyed farms as well as crops.

The scorched-earth technique weakened invaded communities because it caused shortages of food, displacement of people and loss of weapons and other kinds of property.

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vi. The Ngoni came in big numbers and were strong:

On their way they absorbed or fought off the people they encountered, capturing the young for worries and young women for wives.

They had good military organization with age-regiments called "impis" (strong army).

vii. The East African people were caught unaware and therefore did not offer much resistance.

The Ngoni were successful because the local people whom they were fighting with were so weak and lived in small groups, which could not resist/ challenge the sudden and unexpected Ngoni invasion.

THE CAUSES OF THE NGONI MIGRATION

i. Dictatorial rule of Shaka:

Shaka Zulu was cruel in nature as he severely tortured people and those who failed to respond to his order were killed.

Due to this some people decided to seek refuge by migrating to other areas.

ii. External pressure from the British and Boers:

They moved because of external pressure from the British and Boers in the South who were moving Northwards occupying their land.

iii. It was due to overpopulation in Natal:

This was caused by the fertility of soils and the availability of rainfall between Drakensberg Mountains and the Indian Ocean.

iv. Pastorals' reason:

Some Ngoni people owned large herds of cattle which forced them to move northwards looking for pasture and water for their animals.

So they wanted to look for more fertile land for their cattle.

They also experienced famine and drought that led to lack of food and water.

v. The influence of their leaders:

Men like Zwangendaba, Mputa and Zulu Gama provided good leadership.

This encouraged them to move onwards.

Overstocking:

It could also have been due to overstocking of their animals as they were having spirit of cattle rustling, i.e. they had great desire to steal other people's cattle.

For example they went on driving away and confiscating other people's cattle during their conquest and expansionist wars.

vii. Increased knowledge of military tactics by the age regiments:

These were powerful military forces and dedicated to professional war, which was their livelihood.

They believed that they could have other territories through migration.

viii. The Mfecane war.

This was the period of political instability and upheavals in South Africa.

As a result of this contradiction wide warrior divided into two groups one was Under Shoshangane created Gaza Empire in Mozambique and Zwangendaba migrated northern wards through central Africa into present day Tanzania.

One group under Mputa Maseko

One group under Mputa Maseko crossed Zambezi River and passed to Eastern side of Lake Malawi (Nyasa) finally settled in present day Songea district.

EFFECTS OF THE NGONI MIGRATIONS

(a) Social Effects

i. The occurrence of frequent wars in the societies that were previously peaceful such as those of Ufipa, Songea and Unyamwezi.

The wars caused social disturbances and unrest in the societies concerned.

ii. Death of people.

Ngoni migration caused the occurrence of deaths and injuries among the Ngoni fighters and their opponents.

Some people died, while others were badly wounded.

The wars also caused famine as the Ngoni destroyed crops and farms, plundered food, burnt houses and destroyed granaries of societies they invaded.

iii. Intermarriage between the indigenous people and the Ngoni.

Some Ngoni men married women war captives.

i. Separation of families.

The Ngoni raids forced weak ethnic groups to move from their places of origin to others.

For example, the Ndendeule moved from their original home in Songea to Namtumbo, where they established new settlements.

Similarly, the Amang'anja of Malawi moved from their homeland on the western side of Lake Nyasa to the eastern side of the lake in response to the Ngoni raids.

ii. Introduction of new culture.

However, there was spread of Ngoni customs and culture.

They enriched the cultures of the people of Southern Tanzania, for example, people copied Ngoni traditional dances and annual festivities.

vi. Introduction of new military tactics and weapons i.e cow horn formation tactics, assegai, cowhides and shields.

(a) Political Effects

i. Ngoni migration contributed to the rise of strong centralized states in the two regions.

The societies which did not accept Ngoni domination strengthened their states militarily in order to defend themselves against the Ngoni warriors.

These societies adopted new military techniques and weapons from the Ngoni.

Examples of such societies were the Nyamwezi, Hehe, Sangu and Kimbu.

ii. Ngoni migrations led to the decline of some states in Central and East Africa.

In all the areas through which they passed the Ngoni destroyed almost everything they came across, including houses, crops and cattle.

This destruction weakened a number of states.

For example, the Ngoni weakened the Rozwi ruling dynasty of the Mwenemutapa Empire in Zimbabwe.

iii. Ngoni migrations disrupted societies in many parts of Central and East Africa.

They disrupted political stability and social coherence in the societies.

For example, the raids weakened and disrupted many societies in western and southern Tanzania.

The disruptions made it easy for some coastal slave traders to obtain slaves from those societies during the second half of the 19th century.

(b) Economic Effects

i. Ngoni migration led to the decline of agricultural production.

As a result of the Ngoni invasions, agricultural production declined as many young men were recruited into the Ngoni armies.

Also, owing to prolonged wars, people became restless and therefore could not produce food.

They spent most of their time hiding from the Ngoni raids.

ii. Ngoni migration consolidated slave trade in East Africa.

The Ngoni raids weakened many societies, which made it easy for slave traders to capture or buy slaves.

Sometimes people sold captives to the traders so as to obtain guns which they used to fight the Ngoni.

The Ngoni also sold some slaves to them.

iii. The Ngoni disrupted and diverted trade routes.

For example, the Long Distance Trade routes were frequently changed in fear of the Ngoni.

The disruptions and diversion of the routes negatively affected economic development in various societies.

iv. It led to the destruction of properties.

Ngoni were moving in large groups destroying crops and other properties wherever they crossed.

Villages that tried to resist were in most cases burnt down.